Chinese thought: 2008

Friday, September 19, 2008

Buddhism in Taiwan

Buddhism is a major religion in Taiwan. More than 90 percent of Taiwan's people practice the Chinese folk religion which integrates Buddhist elements alongside a basically base . Of these, a smaller number identify more specifically with teachings and institutions, without necessarily divorcing themselves from the folk practices. One study proposes that 7 to 15 percent of Taiwanese are Buddhist in the strict sense. Vegetarianism is an important practice which distinguishes this "pure" form of Buddhism.

Government statistics insist on distinguishing Buddhism and Taoism, resulting in almost equal numbers for both . However, many of the self-declared "Buddhists" turn out to be merely applying the name "Buddhism" to the folk religion. Buddhism may also be confused with local syncretic faiths such as I-kuan Tao, since these tend to emphasize Buddhist figures like Guanyin or Maitreya, and also practice vegetarianism.

Four local Buddhist teachers, whose institutions are especially significant, are popularly likened to the "Four Heavenly Kings of Taiwanese Buddhism." They are:

:*North : Master Sheng-yen of Dharma Drum Mountain
:*South : Master Hsing Yun of Fo Guang Shan
:*East : Master Cheng Yen of the Tzu Chi Foundation
:*West : Master Wei Chueh of Chung Tai Shan

Several of these have been influenced by the Humanistic Buddhism of Master Yin Shun , a theological approach which has come to distinguish Taiwanese Buddhism. These institutions have branches all over the world and, in a reversal of the traditional relationship, have begun supporting the revival of Buddhism in China.

History

Buddhism was brought to Taiwan in the time of the Ming dynasty by settlers from Fukien and Kwangtung Provinces. It was discouraged by the Dutch colonial rulers who controlled Taiwan from 1624 until 1663, until Cheng Cheng-kung drove the Dutch from Taiwan in 1663. His son Cheng Ching established the first Buddhist temple in Taiwan.

When the Qing dynasty took control of Taiwan by defeating of Cheng Ching's son, Ching Ning, in 1683, large numbers of monks came from Fukien and Kwangtung provinces to establish temples, and a number of different Buddhist sects flourished. Monastic Buddhism, however, would not arrive until the 19th century.

During the Japanese period , most Taiwan Buddhist temples came to affiliate with one of three central temples:

:*North : Yueh-mei Mountain , founded by Master Shan-hui
:*Center : Fa-yun Temple , founded by Master Chueh-li
:*South : Kai-yuan Temple , also founded by Chueh-li

As a Japanese colony, Taiwan fell under the influence of Japanese Buddhism. Many temples experienced pressure to affiliate with Japanese lineages, including many whose status with respect to Buddhism or Taoism was unclear. Attempts were made to introduce a married priesthood . These failed to take root, as emphasis on vegetarianism and/or clerical celibacy became another means of anti-Japanese protest.

With Japan's defeat in World War II, Taiwan fell under the control of Chiang Kai-shek's government, resulting in contrary political pressures. In 1949, a number of mainland monks fled to Taiwan alongside Chiang's military forces, and received preferential treatment by the new regime. During this period, Buddhist institutions fell under the authority of the government-controlled Chinese Buddhist Association . Originally established in 1947 , it was dominated by "mainland" monks. Its authority began to decline in the 1960s, when independent Buddhist organizations began to be permitted; and especially since the 1987 lifting of martial law in Taiwan.

One of the first private networks of Buddhist centers was that of Hsing Yun, who first attained popularity through radio broadcasts in the 1950s. Another key figure was Cheng Yen, a nun who was ordained by the aforementioned Yin Shun and later founded Tzu Chi, Taiwan's most important charity organization. It is difficult to overestimate the impact of her personal example on the image of Taiwan's sangha. Tzu Chi runs several hospitals in Taiwan, and conducts worldwide relief work. A 1999 earthquake centered in Puli brought praise for Tzu Chi for its effective response, in contrast with that of the Taiwanese government.

During the 1980s, Buddhist leaders pressed Taiwan's Ministry of Education to relax various policies preventing the organization of a Buddhist university. The eventual result was that in the 1990s--flush with contributions made possible by Taiwan's ""--not one but half a dozen such schools emerged, each associated with a different Buddhist leader. Among them were Tzu Chi University, Hsuan-Chuang University, Huafan University, Fo Guang University, Nanhua University, and Dharma Drum Buddhist College. The regulations of Taiwan's Ministry of Education prohibit recognized colleges and universities from requiring religious belief or practice, and these institutions therefore appear little different from others of their rank.

In 2001, Master Hsin Tao of Ling Jiou Shan opened the Museum of World Religions in Taipei. In addition to exhibits on ten different world religions, the museum also features "Avatamsaka World," a model illustrating the Avatamsaka Sutra.

In recent decades, Vajrayana Buddhism has greatly increased in popularity, with many Tibetan lamas from the four major Tibetan schools visiting Taiwan on a regular basis. The True Buddha School is the largest Vajrayana sect in Taiwan, although in recent times the group has been denounced as a cult.

Recent growth

Statistics provided by the Interior Ministry show that Taiwan's Buddhist population grew from 800,000 in 1983 to 4.9 million in 1995, a 600 percent increase against an overall population rise of about twelve percent. Additionally, in the same period the number of registered Buddhist temples increased from 1,157 to 4,020, and the number of monks and nuns was up 9,300 monks and nuns, up from 3,470 in 1983.14. This trend can be attributed to the activity of various charismatic teachers, such as those mentioned above.

Sources

*Chandler, Stuart. ''Establishing a Pure Land on Earth: The Foguang Buddhist Perspective on Modernization and Globalization.'' University of Hawaii Press, 2004.

*Government Information Office , '', 2002.

*Hsing, Lawrence Fu-Ch'uan. ''Taiwanese Buddhism & Buddhist Temples/'' Pacific Cultural Foundation: Taipei, 1983.

*Ho Erling, "" (article 2002.

*Jones, Charles Brewer. ''Buddhism in Taiwan: Religion and the State, 1660-1990.'' University of Hawaii Press, 1999.

*Madsen, Richard. ''Democracy's Dharma: Religious Renaissance and Political Development in Taiwan.'' University of California Press, 2007.

Buddhism in China

Chinese Buddhism refers collectively to the various schools of Buddhism that have flourished in China proper since ancient times. These schools integrated the ideas of Confucianism, Taoism and other indigenous philosophical systems so that what was initially a foreign religion came to be a natural part of Chinese civilization, albeit with a unique character. Buddhism has played an enormous role in shaping the mindset of the Chinese people, affecting their aesthetics, politics, , and .

At the peak of the Tang Dynasty's vitality, Chinese Buddhism produced numerous spiritual masters.

Early History of Buddhism in China

Arrival along the Silk Road

An 8th century Chinese mural in Dunhuang describes an Emperor Wu of Han worshiping the Golden Man statues; "golden men brought in 120 BC by a great Han general in his campaigns against the nomads". However, there is no such mention of Emperor Wu of Han worshiping the Buddha in Chinese historical literature.

The Hou Hanshu then records the visit of Yuezhi envoys to the Chinese capital in 2 BCE, who gave oral teachings on Buddhist sutras to a student, suggesting that some Yuezhi had already started to disseminate the Buddhist faith in eastern Asia during the 1st century BCE .

The Hou Hanshu describes the enquiry about Buddhism made around 70 CE by the Han :

This encounter is further described in a 6th-century account by Yang Xuanzhi:

These Chinese emissaries are said to have visited the country of the Yuezhi and to have brought back with them two missionaries, named Dharmaraksa and Kasyapa Matanga, together with sutras containing 600,000 Sanskrit words. The two missionaries wrote "" to provide guidance on the ideas of Buddhism and the conduct of monks. It is the first Buddhist text in the Chinese language, although its authenticity is a matter of debate.

Their arrival in 67 CE marks Buddhism's official introduction in China. Historians generally agree that by the middle of the 1st century, the religion had penetrated to areas north of the Huai River. Emperor Ming's brother Liu Ying the Prince of Chu was the first high-profile believer of Buddhism, although there is some evidence that Emperor Ming himself might have been as well.

The first documented translation of Buddhist scriptures into Chinese occurs in 148 CE with the arrival of the Parthian missionary An Shih Kao in China, probably on the heels of the Kushan expansion into the Tarim Basin. An Shi Kao established Buddhist temples in Loyang and organized the translation of Buddhist scriptures into Chinese, testifying to the beginning of a wave of Central Asian Buddhist proselytism that was to last several centuries. Traces of Buddhist iconography can also be seen in works of art from this period.

Mahayana Buddhism was first propagated into China by Kushan Lokaksema , the first translator of Mahayana sutras into Chinese.

By the end of the second century, a prosperous community had been settled at Pengcheng .

Relation to Confucianism and Taoism

Most of the Chinese gentry were indifferent to the Central Asian travelers and their religion. Not only was their religion unknown, but much of it seemed alien and amoral to Chinese sensibilities. Concepts such as monasticism and individual spiritual enlightenment directly contradicted the core Confucian principles of family and emperor. Confucianism promoted social stability, order, strong families, and practical living. Chinese officials questioned how a monk's personal attainment of nirvana benefited the empire. Buddhism was less antithetical to Taoism, the other major religion of China. Indeed, upon first encountering Buddhism, many Chinese scholars regarded it as merely a foreign branch of Taoism.

Kang-nam Oh frames the mutual influential dialogue of Buddhism and Taoism within China and mentions Kumarajiva:

Local interpretation of Indian texts

To thrive in China, Buddhism had to transform itself into a system that could exist within the Chinese way of life. Thus highly regarded Indian sutras that advocated filial piety became core texts in China. Buddhism was made compatible with ancestor worship and participation in China's hierarchical system. Works were written arguing that the salvation of an individual was a benefit to that individual's society and family and monks thus contributed to the greater good.

It is conjectured that the shocking collapse of the Han Dynasty in 220 and the resulting period of social upheaval and political unrest known as the Three Kingdoms period may have helped the spread of Buddhism. Buddhism was a minor force, however, compared with Taoism which was directly associated with efforts to defy the emperor . The Taoist Zhang family self-governed the Hanzhong Commandry for nearly 20 years until invasion by the renowned Chinese warlord Cao Cao.

A reason for the lack of interest mostly stemmed from the ruling entity and gentry. All the rulers were Han Chinese and had simply never heard of or knew too little of the religion. The Nine-grade controller system, by which prominent individuals in each local administrative area were given the authority to rank local families and individuals in nine grades according to their potential for government service, further consolidated the importance of Confucianism. Taoism also remained a strong force among the population and philosophers.

Buddhism gains political traction in the north

Subsequent chaotic periods of Sixteen Kingdoms and Southern and Northern Dynasties changed the situation, resulting in state support of Buddhism. Most rulers of the Wu, Hu, and the Northern dynasties originated from more than ten distinct ethnic groups including either non-Han Chinese "barbarians", or Han Chinese after generations of "barbarian" influence. They did not propagate nor trust the combined philosophical concept of Confucianism and Taoism as zealously as their rivals in the south. Official support of Buddhism would eventually mould a new Chinese populace with a common ideology out of the diversely ethnic population, which would in turn consolidate these dynasties.

It is instructive that Buddhism propagated faster in northern China than in the south. Social upheaval in northern China worked to break down cultural barriers between the elite ruling families and the general populace, in contrast to the south where elite clans and royal families firmly monopolized politics. Taoist and Confucian political ideology had long consolidated the political status of elite clans in the south. Support of another religion would have unknown and possibly adverse effects, for which these clans would not risk their privileges. Furthermore pro-Buddhist policy would not be backed by the bureaucracy, which had been staffed by members of the clans. Southern rulers were in weaker positions to strive for their legitimacy - some were even installed by the clans. It was not until the reign of Emperor Wu of the Liang Dynasty that saw the official support of Buddhism. Rebellion of Hou Jing near the end of Emperor Wu's reign wreaked havoc on the political and social privileges of the elite clans, which indirectly assisted the spread of Buddhism. But Buddhism spread pretty well in the peasant populace, both in the north and the south.

Monks and rulers join forces

Arrivals of several prestigious monks in the early 5th century also contributed to the propagation of the religion and were welcomed by rulers of the Sixteen Kingdoms and . Fo Tu Cheng was entrusted by the tyrant Shi Hu of Later Chao. Kumarajiva was invited by Lü Guang, the founder of Later Liang, and later by Yao Xing, second ruler of Later Qin. Biographies of these monks, among others, were the subject of the ''Memoirs of Eminent Monks''.

The direct experiential impact of contact with practicing monks should not be underestimated. Confucianism had no equivalent to holy men – the archetypical best and brightest was a wise government minister, not a saint. Taoist priests were more immediate, but given to relativism. It is notable that when another "foreign " religion, Nestorianism, sought to extol the virtues of one of its main benefactors they claimed he was so moral that "...even among the most pure and self-denying of the Buddhists, such excellence was never heard of;" . Through the actions and example of monks, Buddhists successfully laid claim to the high moral ground in society.

In this way Buddhism grew to become a major religion in China. By the beginning of the 6th century, Buddhism had grown in popularity to rival Taoism. We know they were successful because the monks were soon accused of falling into extravagance and their lands and properties confiscated by Emperor Wu of the dynasty and Wuzong of the Tang Dynasty.

During the early Tang dynasty the monk Xuanzang journeyed to Nalanda in India and other important sites to bring back scriptures. He sought to expand influence of Mahayana over Theravada, though the Yogacara school he preferred differs significantly from the later Chinese Mahayana schools that developed such as Pure Land .

The Kaiyuan's Three Great Enlightened Masters, Subhakarasimha, Vajrabodhi, and Amoghavajra, established Esoteric Buddhism in China from AD 716 to 720 during the reign of emperor Tang Xuanzong .

They came to Daxing Shansi, Great Propagating Goodness Temple, which was the predecessor of Temple of the Great Enlightener MahaVairocana. Daxing Shansi was established in the ancient capital Chang'an, today's Xi'an, and became one of the four great centers of scripture translation supported by the imperial court. They had translated many Buddhist scriptures, sutra and tantra, from Sanskrit to Chinese. They had also assimilated the prevailing teachings of China, Taoism and Confucianism, with Buddhism, and had further evolved the practice of The Esoteric School.

The Tang capital of Chang'an became an important center for Buddhist thought. From there Buddhism spread to Korea, and Japanese embassies of Kentoshi helped gain footholds in Japan.

The popularization of Buddhism in this period is evident in the many scripture-filled caves and structures surviving from this period. The Mogao Caves near Dunhuang in Gansu province, the Longmen Grottoes near Luoyang in Henan and the Yungang Grottoes near Datong in Shanxi are the most renowned examples from the , and . The Leshan Giant Buddha, carved out of a hillside in the 8th century during the Tang Dynasty and looking down on the confluence of three rivers, is still the largest stone Buddha statue in the world.

They brought to the Chinese a mysterious, dynamic, and magical teaching, which included mantra formulae and rituals to protect a person or an empire, to affect a person’s fate after death, and, particularly popular, to bring rain in times of drought. It is not surprising, then, that all three masters were well received by the emperor Tang Xuanzong, and their teachings were quickly taken up at the Tang court and among the elite. Mantrayana altars were installed in temples in the capital, and by the time of emperor Tang Taizong its influence among the upper classes outstripped that of Taoism. Relations between Amoghavajra and Taizong were especially good. In life the emperor favored Amoghavajra with titles and gifts, and when the master died in 774, he honored his memory with a stupa, or funeral monument.

Subhakarasimha , an eminent Indian Tantric master, arrived in the capital Chang’an in 716 and translated the Vairocanabhi-Sambodhi-Tantra, better known as the MahaVairocana-Sutra, or Great Sun Buddha Scripture. Four years later another master, Vajrabodhi , and his pupil Amoghavajra , arrived, and proceeded to translate other scriptures, thus establishing a second, though not rival, Mantrayana lineage.

Vajrabodhi , an Indian Buddhist master, and a graduate of the Nālandā Monastery, received complete empowerment and transmission from Nagabodhi, who in turn received from Nagarjuna. He was born of a South Indian Brahmin family, and his father was a priest for the royal house. Vajrabodhi probably converted to Buddhism at the age of sixteen, although some accounts place him at Nālandā at the age of ten.

He studied all varieties of Buddhism and was said to have studied for a time under the famous Buddhist logician Dharmakīrti. Under Santijnana, Vajrabodhi studied Vajrayāna teachings and was duly initiated into yoga. Leaving India, Vajrabodhi traveled to Sri Lanka and Srivijaya , where he apparently was taught a Vajrayāna tradition distinct from that taught at Nālandā. From Srivijaya he sailed to China via the escort of thirty-five Persian merchant-vessels and by AD 720 was ensconced in the Jian’fu Temple at the Chinese capital, Chang'an . Accompanying him was his soon-to-be-famous disciple, Amoghavajra.

When Vajrabodhi arrived in Chang'an, Subhakarasimha had already been there for four years. Subhakarasimha was eighty some years old. Vajrabodhi was about thirty something, and Amoghavajra a teenager. Subhakarasimha and Vajrabodhi met and debated. Afterward, they bowed to each other as each other's teacher.

Like Subhakarasimha, who preceded him by four years, Vajrabodhi spent most of his time in ritual activity, in translating texts from Sanskrit to Chinese, and in the production of Esoteric art. Particularly important was his partial translation of the Sarva-Tathāgata-Tattva-Samgraha between the years 723 and 724. This Yoga Tantra, along with the Mahāvairocana Sutra translated by Subhakarasimha the same year, provides the foundation of the Chen-Yen school in China and the Shingon and Esoteric branch of the Tendai schools in Japan.

Like Subhakarasinha, Vajrabodhi had ties to high court circles and enjoyed the patronage of imperial princesses. He also taught Korean monk Hyecho, who went on to travel India. Vajrabodhi died in 732 and was buried south of the Longmen Grottoes. He was posthumously awarded the title Guoshi, 'National Master'.

Amoghavajra , a Singhalese, was the most famous Yogacharya of his time. He was a prolific translator who became one of the most politically powerful Buddhist monks in Chinese history, acknowledged as one of the eight patriarchs of the doctrine in Shingon lineage.

Born in Samarkand of an Indian father and Sogdian mother, he went to China at age 10 after his father's death. In 719, he was ordained into the Sangha by Vajrabodhi and became his disciple. He also became Subhakarasimha’s disciple a few years later. Both Subhakarasimha, the holder of the Garbhadhatu Womb Realm teachings, and Vajrabodhi, the holder of the Vajradhatu Thunderbolt Realm teachings transmitted the Dharma Lineage to Amoghavajra, who began the Not-Two Dharma Teachings of Garbhadhatu and Vajradhatu. The Tang emperor granted Dharma instruments to Amoghavajra to setup the first Abhiseka-Bodhi-Mandala at Daxing Shansi, thus began the Chinese Esoteric School.

After Vajrabodhi's death in 732, and at his wish, Amoghavajra went on a pilgrimage in search of esoteric or tantric writings, visiting Ceylon, Southeast Asia and India. During this voyage, he apparently met Nagabodhi, master of Vajrabodhi, and studied the Tattvasamgraha system at length. He returned to China in 746 with some five hundred volumes, and baptized the Emperor Tang Xuanzong. He was especially noted for rainmaking and stilling storms. In 749 he received permission to return home, but was stopped by imperial orders when in the south of China.

In 750, he left the court to join the military governorship of Geshu Han, for whom he conducted large-scale tantric initiations at field headquarters. In 754, he translated the first portion of the Tattvasamgraha, the central text of Esoteric Buddhism, which became one of his most significant accomplishments. He regarded its teachings as the most effective method for attaining enlightenment yet devised, and incorporated its basic schema in a number of writings.

In 756, under emperor Suzong, Amoghavajra was recalled to the capital. He was captured in general An Lushan's rebellion but in 757 was freed by loyalist forces, whereupon he performed rites to purify the capital and consolidate the security of the Tang state. Two years later, he initiated the emperor Suzong as a cakravartin.

In 765, Amoghavajra used his new rendition of the Scripture for Humane Kings in an elaborate ritual to counter the advance of a 200,000-strong army of Tibetans and Uyghurs, which was poised to invade Chang’an. Its leader, Pugu Huaien, dropped dead in camp and his forces dispersed.

The opulent Jin’ge Temple on Mt. Wutai was completed in 767, a pet project of Amoghavajra's, and one of his many efforts to promote the Bodhisattva Ma?ju?rī as the protector of China. Amoghavajra continued to perform rites to avert disaster at the request of the emperor Tang Taizong. His time until 771 was spent translating and editing tantric books in 120 volumes, and the Yogachara rose to its peak of prosperity.

He died greatly honored at 70 years of age, in 774, the twelfth year of Taizong, the third emperor under whom he had served. On his death, three days of mourning were officially declared, and he posthumously received various exalted titles. He was given the title of the Thesaurus of Wisdom, Amogha Tripikata and the posthumous rank and title of a Minister of State.
The Chinese monks Huilang, Huiguo and Huilin were among his most prominent successors. Seventy-seven texts were translated by Amoghavajra according to his own account, though many more, including original compositions, are ascribed to him in the Chinese canons.

Making duplications of Buddhist texts was considered to bring meritorious karma. Printing from individually carved wooden blocks and from clay or metal movable type proved much more efficient and eventually eclipsed hand copying. The ''Diamond Sutra'' of 868 CE, a Buddhist scripture discovered in 1907 inside the Mogao Caves, is the first dated example of block printing.

Huiguo was the most well-known disciple of Amoghavajra. Both Amoghavajra and Huiguo were emperors' guru, in other words, they were National Masters. Huiguo's main residence was the Qinglong Temple.

Emperor Tang Wuzong, fearful of the popularity and the magical abilities of the practice, banned the teaching.

There were several components that lead to opposition of Buddhism. One factor is the foreign origins of Buddhism, unlike Taoism and Confucianism. Han Yu wrote, ''"Buddha was a man of the barbarians who did not speak the language of China and wore clothes of a different fashion. His sayings did not concern the ways of our ancient kings, nor did his manner of dress conform to their laws. He understood neither the duties that bind sovereign and subject, nor the affections of father and son."''

Other components included the Buddhists' withdrawal from society, since the Chinese believed that Chinese people should be involved with family life. Wealth and power of the Buddhist temples and monasteries also annoyed many critics.

As mentioned earlier, persecution came during the reign of Emperor Wuzong in the Tang Dynasty. Wuzong was said to hate the sight of Buddhist monks. In 845, he ordered the destruction of 4,600 Buddhist monasteries and 40,000 temples. Another 250,000 Buddhist monks and nuns had to give up their Buddhist lives. Wuzong cited that Buddhism was an alien religion, which is the reason he also persecuted the Christians in China. Ancient Chinese Buddhism never fully recovered from the persecution.

Buddhism after Forfeiture of 845

Song dynasty

Buddhist ideology began to merge with Confucianism and Taoism, due in part to the use of existing Chinese philosophical terms in the translation of Buddhist scriptures. Various Confucian scholars of the Song dynasty, including Zhu Xi , sought to redefine Confucianism as Neo-Confucianism.

Esoteric School

Unknown in history, Amoghavajra's last disciple, Huisu, who received all the religious instruments and dharma transmission, became the Dharma Lineage Holder. Since then, The Esoteric School has been underground for over twelve centuries. The Dharma Lineage has been passed on through one master per generation.

Ming dynasty

"By the period the preeminence of had been so firmly established that almost the entire Buddhist clergy were affiliated with either its Lin-chi or lineages, both of which claimed descent from Bodhidharma."

Modern Chinese Buddhism

Today the most popular form of Buddhism in both mainland China and Taiwan is a mix of the and schools. The central scripture of Pure Land Buddhism, Amitabha Sutra was first brought to China by , circa 147, however the school did not become popular until later. Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch is the most important sutra for and this is the only scripture written by ethnic Chinese which is named Sutra. Theravada Buddhism and Vajrayana Buddhism exist mainly among ethnic minorities in the southwest and north, respectively.

TCM model of the body

This article is part of the philosophy of CAM and series of articles.

Stages of Souyuan

Two previous Souyuan had been decreed by heaven, the first one around the time of Fuxi and Yellow Emperor called the ''First Souyuan'' or ''Qingyangqi'' corresponding to the Spring of absolution, it was sometimes called ''Longhan'' . Nine instruments of armageddon or disasters accompanied that event in which some 200 million yuanling were reclaimed.

The ''Second Souyuan'' was called the ''Hongyangchi'' , also ''Chiming'' corresponding to the summer stage of judgment around the time of Laozi in his last incarnate up till the time of Mencius, some eighteen instruments of armageddon descended on earth, and another 200 million yuanlings reverted to heaven.

The current stage of Souyuan is called the Third Souyuan , called ''Baiyangqi'' or the autumn of Souyuan. It started at the end of the nineteen century, well over a hundred years in running, and still counting. In all some eighty-one instruments of Armageddon, i.e. calamities disasters were and would be deployed to shake up the two realms, that of the living and hell.

The Third Souyuan was approved by the Jade Emperor Guan Shengdi and initiated by ''Wuji Shengmu'' who has sympathy on the remaining yuanling on earth and in hell, the process was documented in full in the book ''The Feast of Immortal Peaches'' .

Qingjing Jing

The Qingjing Jing is an anonymous 9th century Daoist classic that combines philosophical themes from the ''Daode jing'' with Chinese Buddhist meditative practices from the ''Heart Sutra''. It emphasizes using Daoist ''guan'' 觀 "observation; insight meditation" to cultivate spiritual ''qing'' 清 "clarity; purity" and ''jing'' 靜 "tranquility; quiescence; stillness".

Texts

The ''Qingjing jing'' is a short, mostly-versified text comprising some 390 Chinese characters in 90 verses. It is widely read and has numerous commentaries.

Although the first ''Qingjing jing'' line quotes the legendary Laozi, with the Taishang Laozhun 太上老君 "The Most High Lord Lao" , scholars believe the received text dates from around the middle Tang Dynasty .

The oldest extant commentary is by Du Guangting 杜光庭 , a prolific editor of Daoist texts during the late Tang and Five Dynasties period. Du says prior to being written down by Ge Xuan , the ''Qingjing jing'' was orally transmitted for generations, supposedly going back to the mythical Queen Mother of the West.

The ''Daozang'' "Daoist Canon" includes eight editions of the ''Qingjing jing'' with variant titles. The ''Qingjing miaojing'' 清靜妙經 "Wondrous Scripture of Clarity and Quiescence", or ''Taishang Laojun shuo chang qingjing miaojing'' 太上老君說常清靜妙經 "Wondrous Scripture of Constant Clarity and Quiescence, as Spoken by the Most High Lord Lao", is the basic text . Commentaries include those entitled ''Qingjing jingzhu'' 清靜經注 and ''Qingjing jing songzhu'' 清靜經頌注 .

A slightly longer version of approximately 600 characters is the ''Qingjing xinjing'' 清靜心經 "Heart Scripture of Clarity and Quiescence", or ''Taishang Laojun qingjing xinjing'' 太上老君清靜心經 "Heart Scripture of Clarity and Quiescence, as Spoken by the Most High Lord Lao" .

During the Song Dynasty , the ''Qingjing jing'' became popular within the Southern Lineage "Complete Perfection" or Quanzhen School and was interpreted in context with ''neidan'' Chinese internal alchemy. Modern Quanzhen Daoists consider the ''Qingjing jing'' a central scripture and regularly chant it in ''songjing'' 誦經 "reciting scriptural passages; ritual recitation". Kohn explains.

The text serves to inspire the active practitioner and believer. It provides an easy handle on the realization of the Tao within the religious life. It is an exhortation to purity and meditation, a warning against bad thoughts and deviant desires. Pious Taoists know this short and rhythmic text by heart.

Although brief, the ''Qingjing jing'' is philosophically complex. It synthesizes Daoist and Buddhist theories of psychology, cosmology, ontology, and teleology.

The ''Qingjing jing'' is described by Komjathy.

An anonymous text probably dating from the 9th century, this is one of a group of Tang-dynasty works that could be labeled "Clarity-and-Stillness" literature. Emerging under the influence of Buddhist insight meditation and expressing a form of wisdom based on the practice of observation , the text combines the worldview of the ''Daode jing'' 道德經 with the practice of Daoist observation and the structure of the Buddhist ''Panruo xinjing'' 般若心經 . It emphasizes the dual cultivation of clarity/purity and "stillness/tranquility" .

These Daoist keywords are ''guan'' "scrutiny; careful observation; insight meditation; contemplation", ''qing'' "clarity; purity; cleanliness", and ''jing'' "stillness; quiet; calm; tranquility". The ''Daodejing'' is the locus classicus for ''qingjing'': "Bustling about vanquishes cold, Standing still vanquishes heat. Pure and still, one can put things right everywhere under heaven."

Kohn summarizes the ''Qingjing jing''.

The text first describes the nature of the Dao as divided into Yin and Yang, clear and turbid , moving and quiescent , and stresses the importance of the mind in the creation of desires and worldly entanglements. It recommends the practice of observation to counteract this, i.e., the observation of other beings, the self, and the mind, which results in the realization that none of these really exists. The practitioner has reached the observation of emptiness . The latter part of the work reverses direction and outlines the decline from pure spirit to falling into hell: spirit develops consciousness or mind , and mind develops greed and attachment toward the myriad beings. Greed then leads to involvement, illusory imagining, and erroneous ways, which trap beings in the chain of rebirth and, and they sink deeper into the quagmire of desire, causes them to fall into hell.

Translations

The ''Qingjing jing'' has been translated into English by Balfour , Legge , and Kohn . Wong translated the Shuijingzi 水精子 commentary.

Comparing translations of the first two sections illustrates how Daoist studies have advanced in a century.

''The Words of Lao Chün''. Although the Great Principle of Nature – TAO – has no form, it brought forth and nourishes Heaven and Earth; though it has no passions, it causes the Sun and Moon to revolve; though it has no name, it produces the growth and nurture of all things. As I do not know its name, I am compelled to call it simply TAO.

Now this Principle includes the pure and the turbid, the active and the motionless. For instance, Heaven is pure and Earth turbid; Heaven moves and the Earth is still. The Masculine is pure, the feminine turbid; the Masculine is active and the Feminine at rest. Emerging from its source and flowing on to all its developments, it produced the visible creation. The pure is the origin of the turbid, and the active of the motionless. If a man is able to remain permanently pure and motionless, Heaven and Earth will both at once come and dwell in him.

Ch. 1. 1. L?o the Master 1 said, The Great T?o has no bodily form, but It produced and nourishes heaven and earth. The Great T?o has no passions, but It causes the sun and moon to revolve as they do. The Great T?o has no name, but It effects the growth and maintenance of all things. I do not know its name, but I make an effort, and call It the T?o.

2. Now, the T?o ; the Pure and the Turbid, and has Motion and Rest. Heaven is pure and earth is turbid; heaven moves and earth is at rest. The masculine is pure and the feminine is turbid; the masculine moves and the feminine is still. The radical descended, and the issue flowed abroad; and thus all things were produced. The pure is the source of the turbid, and motion is the foundation of rest. If man could always be pure and still, heaven and earth would both revert .

The Great Tao has no form; It brings forth and raises heaven and earth. The Great Tao has no feelings; It regulates the course of the sun and the moon. The Great Tao has no name; It raises and nourishes the myriad beings. I do not know its name – So I call it Tao.

The Tao can be pure or turbid; moving or tranquil. Heaven is pure, earth is turbid; Heaven is moving, earth is tranquil. The male is moving, the female is tranquil. Descending from the origin, Flowing toward the end, The myriad beings are being born. Purity – the source of turbidity, Movement – the root of tranquility. Always be pure and tranquil; Heaven and earth Return to the primordial.

Power position

Power position is a concept from Feng Shui, the ancient Chinese practice of studying one's position within one's surroundings.

In Feng Shui, the Power Position or "Dragon Seat" is the physical position in the room for a business meeting, which supposedly has the most power. The person in this position can see all entrances to the room, and they are seated against a wall or other structure, so that no activity occurs behind them. This makes them the focus of attention to all persons present.

It is believed that the individual in the power position has a significant advantage in negotiations and other business activity in such a meeting.

Pao-t'ang Wu-chu

Pao-t'ang Wu-chu or 'Bao-tang Wu-zhu' , head and founder of Pao-t'ang Monastery at Chengtu, Szechwan located in south west China. Both Reverend Kim and Pao-t'ang Wu-chu were of the same Ch'an variety, the "East Mountain Teaching" incorrectly known in Western scholarship with the pejorative nomenclature, "Northern School".

The Location of Luo Points

The Luo Points are on the body qi meridians as follows:
# Stomach Meridian
# Spleen/Pancreas Meridian
# Heart Meridian
# Small Intestine Meridian
# Bladder Meridian
# Kidney Meridian
# Pericardium Meridian
# Triple Heater Meridian
# Gall Bladder Meridian
# Liver Meridian
# Lung Meridian
# Large Intestine Meridian

External links and references

Jingxiang

Jingxiang , ''Shangxiang'' , ''Baishen'' is a ritual of offering joss incense accompanied by tea and or fruits. It is observed by a devotee holding joss incense with both hands in front of an altar at a temple or at home, mentally running the prayer or well-wishes. For added respect the devotee or descendent is expected to kneel during and after placing the joss-incense in the urn or the altar.

Jiangxiang is practiced by adherents belonging to one of the schools of Taoism, Buddhism and Confucianism, as well as commoners making a general prayer to one of the Chinese deities, or sending well wishes to a deceased as part of the Chinese ancestor veneration as part of the daily prayer, in Qingming Festival, Ghost festival and Chongyang Festival .

Number and Meanings of Incense

The number of joss stick varies from five to stand for ''Tian Di Jun Qing Shi'' , where tiandi denotes the realm of heaven and earth, Jun meaning the ruler which could be Guan Shengdi to the prime minister, Qing the kins and relatives and Shi, one’s teacher. One stick each to these stands for respect.

It can be offered with three joss sticks that stand for ''Tian Di Ren'' , again tian di for the two realms, and ren for all humanity as well as those who are deceased.

Lastly it can also be practiced with one joss, to denote all creation together with heaven and earth.

Sandalwood Joss

Joss incense shall be in sandalwood or sandalwood-scented , as the scent of sandalwood has a calming effect to the spirit or yuanshen of human. It works likewise for a deceased or a Sheng Fok Xian Zhen, that a burnt sandalwood incense can be felt. In this connection it also serves as a notice to the deity an adherent is respecting. It is not a form of food to gods.

Other Offerings

Usually Jingxiang is done with an offering of tea, in a number corresponding to the gods, typically three cups. It is believed by Taoists that spiritually this is also felt. Fruits generally is offered to accompany Jingxiang, again the specification differs for temples or deities.

Great unity

The Great unity is a classical Chinese term found in classical Chinese philosophy which has been invoked many times in modern Chinese history. It refers to a utopian vision of the world in which everyone and everything is at peace.

The phrase was recorded first in ''Liji Liyun Datong'' , editing by Confucius.

The concept was used by Kang Youwei in his visionary utopia ''The Book of Great Unity'' .

The great unity is also often mentioned in the writings of Dr. Sun Yat-sen and is included in the lyrics of the"National Anthem of the Republic of China".

This ideology can be reflected in the following examples:

* - National Anthem of the Republic of China
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In Chinese Marxism it has been associated with the state of world communism.

Fuji (planchette writing)

Fuji is a method of "planchette writing; spirit writing; automatic writing" using either a sieve or a stick to write Chinese characters in sand or incense ashes.

Beginning around the Ming Dynasty , the ''fuji'' method and written characters changed from 扶箕 "support the sieve" to 扶乩 "support the planchette" . Sieve divination or coscinomancy is culturally widespread, and Chao compares practices in ancient Greece and Rome, medieval Europe, and India.

Chinese ''fuji'' spirit-writing involves some specialized vocabulary. ''Luan'' 鸞 "a mythical phoenix-like bird" is used in synonyms such as ''fuluan'' 扶鸞 "support the phoenix," ''feiluan'' 飛鸞 "flying phoenix," and ''jiangluan'' 降鸞 "descending phoenix". The ''fuji'' process involves specialized participants. The two people who hold the sieve or stylus are called ''jishou'' 乩手 "planchette hands", only one of whom is ostensibly possessed by a 神 "spirit; god" or 仙 "immortal; transcendent". Their assistants include a ''pingsha'' 平沙 "level sand" who smoothes out the ''shapan'' 沙盤 "sand table", a ''dujizhe'' 讀乩者 "planchette reader" who interprets the characters, and a ''chaojizhe'' 抄乩者 "planchette copyist" who records them. ''Jiwen'' 乩文 "planchette writing" is a general reference to texts produced through Chinese ''fuji'' spirit-writing.

Spirit-writing has a long history in Chinese folk religion, and is first recorded during the Liu Song Dynasty . ''Fuji'' planchette-writing became popular during the Song Dynasty , when authors like Shen Kuo and Su Shi associated its origins with summoning Zigu 紫姑 "Purple Maiden", the Spirit of the Latrine. ''Fuji'' divination flourished during the Ming Dynasty, and the Jiajing Emperor built a special ''jitan'' 乩壇 "planchette altar" in the Forbidden City . Although the practice of ''fuji'' planchette-writing was prohibited by the Qing Dynasty , it has continued and is currently practiced at Daoist temples in Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Malaysia as well as folk shrines in China.

''Fuji'' is particularly associated with the Quanzhen School of Daoism. The ''Daozang'' "Daoist Canon" contains several scriptures supposedly written through spirit-writing. Two examples are the ''Zitong dijun huashu'' 梓潼帝君化書 "Book of Transformations of the Divine Lord of Zitong" and the ''Taiyi jinhua zongzhi'' 太一金華宗旨 "Great One’s Secret of the Golden Flower" .

Feng shui

Feng shui is an ancient Chinese practice believed to utilize the Laws of both heaven and earth to help one improve life by receiving positive Qi.
The original designation for the discipline is ''Kan Yu'' .

The words 'feng shui' literally translate as ''"wind-water"''in English. This is a cultural shorthand taken from the following passage of the ''Zhangshu'' by Guo Pu of the :

Many modern enthusiasts claim that feng shui is the practice of arranging objects to help people achieve their goals. More traditionally, feng shui is important in choosing a place to live and finding a burial site, along with agricultural planning.

Proponents claim that feng shui has an effect on health, wealth and personal relationships. Critics consider it a pseudoscience, even .

Archaeology

Currently and cultures provide the earliest evidence for Feng Shui. Until the invention of the magnetic compass, apparently Feng Shui relied on to find correlations between humans and the universe.

In 4000 BCE the doors of Banpo dwellings were aligned to the asterism ''Yingshi'' just after the winter solstice -- this sited the homes for solar gain. During the Zhou era, ''Yingshi'' was known as ''Ding'' and used to indicate the appropriate time to build a capital city, according to the ''Shijing''. The late Yangshao site at Dadiwan includes a palace-like building at the center. The building faces south and borders a large plaza. It is on a north-south axis with another building that apparently housed communal activities. The complex may have been used by regional communities.

A grave at Puyang that contains mosaics of the Dragon and Tiger asterisms and Beidou is oriented along a north-south axis. The presence of both round and square shapes in the Puyang tomb, at Hongshan culture ceremonial centers and the late Longshan settlement at Lutaigang, suggests that ''gaitian'' cosmography was present in Chinese society long before it appeared in the ''Zhou Bi Suan Jing''.

Cosmography that bears a striking resemblance to modern Feng Shui devices and formulas was found on a jade unearthed at Hanshan and dated around 3000 BCE. The design is linked by archaeologist Li Xueqin to the ''liuren'' astrolabe, ''zhinan zhen'', and .

Beginning with palatial structures at Erlitou, all capital cities of China followed rules of Feng Shui for their design and layout. These rules were codified during the Zhou era in the ''Kaogong ji'' . Rules for builders were codified in the carpenter's manual ''Lu ban jing'' . Graves and tombs also followed rules of Feng Shui, from Puyang to Mawangdui and beyond. From the earliest records, it seems that the rules for the structures of the graves and dwellings were the same.

Early Instruments and Techniques

The history of feng shui covers 3,500+ years before the invention of the magnetic compass. Its origins are in astronomy. Some current techniques can be traced to Neolithic China, while others were added later .

The astronomical history of Feng Shui is evident in the development of instruments and techniques. According to the ''Zhouli'' the original Feng Shui instrument may have been a gnomon. Chinese used circumpolar stars to determine the north-south axis of settlements. This technique explains why Shang palaces at lie 10° east of due north. In some cases, as Paul Wheatley observed, they bisected the angle between the directions of the rising and setting sun to find north. This technique provided the more precise alignments of the Shang walls at Yanshi and Zhengzhou.

The oldest examples of instruments used for feng shui are ''liuren'' . These consist of a lacquered, two-sided board with astronomical sightlines. Liuren astrolabes have been unearthed from tombs that date between 278 BCE and 209 BCE. They show the cord-hook diagram and some models include the of three. They were commonly used to chart the motion of Taiyi through the nine palaces. The markings are virtually unchanged from the astrolabe to the first magnetic compasses.

The magnetic compass was invented for Feng Shui and has been in use since its invention. Traditional Feng Shui instrumentation consists of the or the earlier south-pointing spoon '''' -- though a conventional compass could suffice if one understood the differences. A Feng Shui ruler may also be employed.

Foundation theories

The goal of feng shui as practiced today is to situate the human built environment on spots with good qi. The "perfect spot" is a location and an axis in time. Some areas are not suitable for human settlement and should be left in their natural state.

Qi

Qi is a difficult word to translate and is usually left untranslated. Literally the word means "air". In martial arts ''qi'' refers to internal or physical energy.

In New Age interpretations of Feng Shui, "qi" typically is synonymous with "energy" . A more traditional explanation of qi as it relates to Feng Shui would consider a holistic understanding of local microclimates, the orientation of the structure, its age, and its interaction with the surrounding environment from the slope of the land to the vegetation and soil quality.

One use for a is to detect the flow of qi. It could be said that feng shui assesses the quality of the local environment and the effects of space weather -- that is, feng shui is ''qimancy'', or qi divination.

Professor Max Knoll suggested in a 1951 lecture that qi is a form of solar radiation. Compasses reflect local geomagnetism which includes geomagnetically induced currents caused by space weather.

Beliefs from the Axial Age, feng shui among them, hold that the heavens influence life on Earth. This seems preposterous to many people, yet space weather exists and can have profound effects on technology , and the internal orienting faculties of birds and other creatures. There is some evidence that suicide rates in Kirovsk, Russia, fluctuate along with the geomagnetic field. Atmospheric scientists have suggested that space weather creates fluctuations in market prices.

Polarity

Polarity is expressed in feng shui as Yin and Yang Theory. Polarity expressed through yin and yang is similar to a bipolar magnetic field. That is, it is of two parts: one creating an exertion and one receiving the exertion. Yang acting and yin receiving could be considered an early understanding of chirality. The development of Yin Yang Theory and its corollary, Five Phase Theory , have also been linked with astronomical observations of sunspots.

The so-called "elements" of feng shui are made of yin and yang in precise amounts . Earth is a buffer, or an equilibrium achieved when the polarities cancel each other. This explains why feng shui is said to be about balance.

Bagua

Two diagrams known as loom large in feng shui, and both predate their mentions in the Yijing or I Ching. The Lo Chart and the River Chart are linked to astronomical events of the sixth millennium BCE, and with the Turtle Calendar from the time of Yao. The Turtle Calendar of Yao dates to 2300 BCE, plus or minus 250 years.

It seems clear from many sources that time, in the form of astronomy and calendars, is at the heart of feng shui.

In ''Yaodian'', the cardinal directions are determined by the marker-stars of the mega-constellations known as the Four Celestial Animals.

East: the Bluegreen Dragon --- ''Niao'' ,

South: the Red Bird --- ''Huo'' ,

West: the White Tiger --- ''Xu'' , ,

North: the Dark Turtle --- ''Mao'' , η Tauri

The bagua diagrams are also linked with the ''sifang'' method of divination used during the Shang dynasty. The ''sifang'' is much older, however. It was used at Niuheliang, and figured large in Hongshan culture's astronomy. And it is this area of China that is linked to Huangdi, the Yellow Emperor, who allegedly invented the south-pointing spoon.

School

A ''school'' or ''stream'' is a set of techniques or methods. The term should not be confused with an actual school -- there are many masters who run schools.

Some claim that authentic masters impart their genuine knowledge only to selected students, such as relatives.

Modern techniques

Classical feng shui is typically associated with the following techniques. This is not a complete list; it is merely a list of the most common techniques.

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* Xuan Kong
* Xuan Kong Fei Xing
* Xuan Kong Da Gua
* Xuan Kong Shui Fa
* Zi Bai
* Ba Zhai
* San Yuan Dragon Gate Eight Formation
* Major & Minor Wandering Stars
* San He Luan Dou
* San He Shui Fa
* Qimen Dunjia
* Zi wei dou shu

Modern developments

One of the grievances mentioned when the anti-Western Boxer Rebellion erupted was that Westerners were violating the basic principles of Feng Shui in their construction of railroads and other conspicuous public structures throughout China. At the time, Westerners had little idea of, or interest in, such Chinese traditions. Since Richard Nixon journeyed to The People's Republic of China in 1972, feng shui has become somewhat of an industry.

It has been reinvented by New Age entrepreneurs for Western consumption. Feng shui speaks to the profound role of magic, mystery, and order in American life. The following list does not exhaust the modern varieties.

Black Sect -- also called , or BTB Feng Shui) -- incorporated as a US in 1984, with temples in California and New York. It was invented in the early 1980s by Thomas Lin Yun Rinpoche, who came to the US from Taiwan.

The history of feng shui used by the church doesn't match documentary or archaeological evidence, or what is known of the history of Tantrism in China. It relies on "transcendental" methods, the concept of clutter as metaphor for life circumstances, and the use of affirmations or ''intentions'' to achieve results. The BTB bagua was developed by Lin Yun. Each of the eight sectors that were once aligned to compass points now represent a particular area of one's life.

Shen Dao -- invented in the late 1970s by Harrison G. Kyng -- found a home in the UK. Kyng's invention uses Five Element Theory for medical purposes along with building assessment, and is supposed to help someone achieve greater physical and environmental benefits. The compass that Kyng developed incorporates many New Age concepts, including the idea of harmonics.

Feng Shui compasses and geomagnetism

An overview of claims is offered below.

Claim: The stability of Magnetic North is critical for the accuracy of divining your fortune with a compass. In physics the convention is that the end of a dipole magnet where the magnetic field flows out is the "north" pole of the magnet, and the "south" pole of the magnet is where the field flows in. The geomagnetic field flows out of the geographic South Pole, and runs back into the geographic North Pole -- so ''geomagnetic'' north is actually at the ''geographic'' South Pole. The convention is to call the pole in Canada the North Magnetic Pole. "The Chinese always place south at the top of the compass but North is still magnetic North." The fact that all geomagnetic poles wander has not prevented compasses from being useful. For example, compasses are installed in cars, ships, and oil rigs.

All Chinese compasses point to geographic south . A is used to determine the orientation of structures or the angle of something in relation to a structure.

Claim: Magnetic North and True North are not the same. A Luopan compensates for this. On a Luopan the Human Plate Central Needle was added during the Tang dynasty to measure declination and this has been updated as necessary. During the southern Song dynasty the Heaven Plate Seam Needle was added for magnetic deviation and also updated as necessary. The Earth Plate Correct Needle indicates current geomagnetic conditions.

As Joseph Needham remarked in a lecture, "When speaking of magnetism and of the magnetic compass … in China people were worrying about the nature of the declination before Europeans had even heard about the polarity." Declination was discovered, says Needham, because "geomancers had been attending most carefully to the positions of their needles.”

Claim: The solar wind vibrates the magnetic pole, moving magnetic north. If you use magnetic north to determine where to put your furniture, the degrees are not critical, the overall direction is. However, if you use magnetic north to find a site location the reading will not be accurate. The convention is to call the pole in Canada the North Magnetic Pole.

The solar wind fluctuates during the Sun's rotation, with high-and low-speed streams creating high-pressure and low-pressure fronts that contribute to space weather, which sometimes hits the Earth's magnetic field to produce storms in the Earth's magnetosphere. Space weather fronts are like weather fronts on Earth. Space weather fronts generate interplanetary 'weather' such as aurora and magnetic storms, which can interrupt radio and satellite communications. Space weather has led to better early warning mechanisms, not to abandonment of affected technologies.

The Geological Survey of Canada has now determined that the location of the North magnetic pole is now moving more than 40 km per year. The Geological Survey of Canada has also determined that the North magnetic pole is in constant motion on any give day and may be displaced by as much as 80km or more. are responsible for these constantly occurring fluctuations in the location of the North Magnetic Pole.

A magnetic compass is comprised of a magnetized needle balanced on a pivot point. No matter where you are the magnetic needle will point to the current location of the North Magnetic Pole. This answers the question asked by so many students, “Why do I get different compass readings from the same location?

Criticism

Victorian-era commentators on feng shui were generally ethnocentric, and as such skeptical and derogatory of what they knew of feng shui.

In 1896 at a meeting of the Educational Association of China, Rev. P.W. Pitcher railed at the "rottenness of the whole scheme of Chinese architecture," and urged fellow missionaries "to erect unabashedly Western edifices of several stories and with towering spires in order to destroy nonsense about ''fung-shuy''."

Some modern Christians have a similar opinion of feng shui.

It is entirely inconsistent with Christianity to believe that harmony and balance result from the manipulation and channeling of nonphysical forces or energies, or that such can be done by means of the proper placement of physical objects. Such techniques, in fact, belong to the world of sorcery.

Since the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, feng shui has been officially deemed as a "feudalistic superstitious practice" and a "social evil" according to the state's atheistic Communist ideology and discouraged or even outright banned at times .

Persecution was the most severe during the Cultural Revolution, when feng shui was classified as a custom under the so-called Four Olds to be wiped out. Feng shui practitioners were beaten and abused by Red Guards and their works burned. After the death of Mao Zedong and the end of the Cultural Revolution, the official attitude became more tolerant but restrictions on feng shui practice are still in place in today's China. It is illegal in the PRC today to register feng shui consultation as a business and similarly advertising feng shui practice is banned, and there have been frequent crackdowns on feng shui practitioners on the grounds of "promoting feudalistic superstitions" such as one in Qingdao in early 2006 when the city's business and industrial administration office shut down an art gallery converted into a feng shui practice . Communist officials who had consulted feng shui were sacked and expelled from the Communist Party .

Partly because of the Cultural Revolution, in today's PRC less than one-third of the population believe in feng shui, and the proportion of believers among young urban PRC Chinese is said to be much less than 5% . Among all the ethnic Chinese communities the PRC has the least number of feng shui believers in proportion to the general population. Learning feng shui is considered taboo in today's China. Nevertheless, it is reported that feng shui has gained adherents among Communist Party officials according to a BBC Chinese news commentary in 2006. , and since the beginning of Chinese economic reforms the number of feng shui practitioners are increasing. A number of Chinese academics permitted to research on the subject of feng shui are anthropologists or architects by trade, studying the history of feng shui or historical feng shui theories behind the design of heritage buildings, such as Cao Dafeng, the Vice-President of Fudan University, and Liu Shenghuan of Tongji University.

Feng Shui practitioners have been skeptical of claims and methods in the "cultural supermarket." Mark Johnson made a telling point:

This present state of affairs is ludicrous and confusing. Do we really believe that mirrors and flutes are going to change people's tendencies in any lasting and meaningful way? ... There is a lot of investigation that needs to be done or we will all go down the tubes because of our inability to match our exaggerated claims with lasting changes.

A travelogue-type article from the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry explained feng shui initially as "a commonsense alignment of structures to conform to the shape of the land, an idea shared by any sensible architect in a land fraught with typhoons and torrential rains." However, after reading two books , the writer's conclusion was that feng shui "is more of a mystical belief in cosmic harmony."

Penn & Teller did an episode of their television show ''Bullshit!'' that featured several Feng Shui practitioners in the US, and was highly critical of the inconsistent advice. In the show, the entertainers argue that if Feng Shui is a science , it should feature a consistent method.

Current research

A growing body of research exists on the traditional forms of feng shui used and taught in Asia.

Landscape ecologists find traditional feng shui an interesting study. In many cases, the only remaining patches of old forest in Asia are "feng shui woods," which strongly suggests the "healthy homes," sustainability and environmental components of ''ancient'' feng shui techniques should not be easily dismissed.

Environmental scientists and landscape architects have researched traditional feng shui and its methodologies.

Architectural schools study the principles as they applied to ancient vernacular architecture..

Geographers have analyzed the techniques and methods to help locate historical sites in Victoria, Canada, and archaeological sites in the American Southwest, concluding that ancient Native Americans considered astronomy and landscape features.

Whether it is data on comparisons to scientific models, or the design and siting of buildings, graduate and undergraduate students have been accumulating solid evidence on what researchers call the "exclusive Chinese cultural achievement and experience in architecture" that is feng shui.

History

The CCPC was the subject of the 2006 film , in which a film crew followed leader Desmond Murray on a landmark journey to China in which he sought to validate and re-teach the ancient origins of the arts to the country's natives.

It was also central to a conducted by Leeds Metropolitan University, while the charity have performed at a number of nationwide venues in the United Kingdom, including Royal Albert Hall.

The CCPC runs classes in twenty towns and cities across England and Scotland. As well as running classes in Germany, France, Holland, Denmark and California,USA.

CCPC style of Lishi

Lishi, and specifically, involves a combination of both simple and complex movement and dance dating back over 3,000 years, designed to stimulate and invigorate body and mind, with a core focus on inner strength, breathing and energy .

Charitable Aims

The College of Chinese Physical Culture is a nationwide organisation that seeks to stimulate, invigorate and energise mind and body by offering a range of classes.

Supported by and the V-project, the College has recently embarked on charitable campaigns to spread the popularity of Wushu to newer, wider audiences as part of their initiative.

This targeted the involvement of underprivileged people in inner-city areas, offering a wide range of volunteering opportunities with an end aim of gaining a national , developing a portfolio of work for future jobs, plus a national vocation in non-competitive Chinese movement and dance. Opportunities still exist in these areas.

Specific aims of the College of Chinese Physical Culture

The charity's Mission Statement endeavours to fulfil the following aims:

Personal Development
The College programme benefits people in the areas of confidence and self-esteem, self-reflection and motivation, and stimulates process learning by raising awareness of how to process and understand information: to interpret, analyse and use it. It fosters new skills, in becoming more relaxed, confident and tolerant, in managing change and stress, in looking at situations from different perspectives, and in being more open-minded and respectful of themselves and others.

Health
The programme focuses on improved health and fitness by involving people in fun and health-related exercises and activities. Participants learn about physical strength and the power of the mind through gentle but focused exercise, encouraging a relaxed rather than tense approach to their environment. Adaptable to all ages and levels of skill, the programme encourages a better understanding of the challenges to body health. It works with breath, posture, balance, responsiveness, energy and flexibility, and is an excellent way of reducing stress and increasing a sense of well-being.

Interpersonal skills
The College programme aims to develop effective interpersonal skills by encouraging assertiveness, sensitivity and constructive criticism and addressing and changing any barriers to learning such as a negative attitude. Partner work in exercises and peer observation encourages communication and negotiation, trust, co-operation and team building; and individuals develop greater participation and reliability in groups, as well as respect for diversity.

Press Coverage

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Chinese philosophy

Chinese philosophy is philosophy written in the of thought. Chinese philosophy has a history of several thousand years; its origins are often traced back to the , an ancient compendium of divination, which uses a system of 64 hexagrams to guide action. This system is attributed to King Wen around 1000 years BCE and the work reflects the characteristic concepts and approaches of Chinese philosophy. The ''Book of Changes'' evolved in stages over the next eight centuries, but the first recorded reference is in 672 BCE.

The ''Tao Te Ching'' of and the ''Analects'' of Confucius both appeared around the 6th century BCE, slightly ahead of early Buddhist philosophy and pre-Socratic philosophy.

Confucianism represents the collected teachings of the Chinese sage Confucius, who lived from 551 to 479 BC. His philosophy concerns the fields of ethics and politics, emphasizing personal and governmental morality, correctness of social relationships, justice, traditionalism, and sincerity. The Analects stress the importance of ritual, but also the importance of 'ren', which loosely translates as 'human-heartedness, Confucianism, along with , is responsible for creating the world’s first meritocracy, which holds that one's status should be determined by ability instead of ancestry, wealth, or friendship. . The government of the People's Republic of China encourage Socialism with Chinese characteristics. Although, officially, it does not encourage some of the philosophical practices of Imperial China, the influences of past are still deeply ingrained in the Chinese culture. As in Japan, philosophy in China has become a melting pot of ideas. It accepts new concepts, while attempting also to accord old beliefs their due.

''Chinese philosophy'' has spread around the world in forms such as the ''New Confucianism'' and New Age ideas . Many in the academic community of the West remain skeptical, and only a few assimilate Chinese philosophy into their own research, whether scientific or philosophical. However, it still carries profound influence amongst the people of East Asia, and even Southeast Asia.

Brief history

Early beliefs

Early Shang Dynasty thought was based upon cyclicity. This notion stems from what the people of the Shang Dynasty could observe around them: day and night cycled, the seasons progressed again and again, and even the moon waxed and waned until it waxed again. Thus, this notion, which remained relevant throughout Chinese history, reflects the order of nature. In juxtaposition, it also marks a fundamental distinction from western philosophy, in which the dominant view of time is a linear progression. During the Shang, could be manipulated by great deities , commonly translated as Gods. Ancestor worship was present and universally recognized. There was also human and animal sacrifice.

When the Shang were overthrown by the , a new political, religious and philosophical concept was introduced called the "Mandate of Heaven". This mandate was said to be taken when rulers became unworthy of their position and provided a shrewd justification for Zhou rule. During this period, archaeological evidence points to an increase in literacy and a partial shift away from the faith placed in Shangdi , with ancestor worship becoming commonplace and a more worldly orientation coming to the fore.

Hundred Schools of Thought

In around 500 BCE, after the Zhou state weakened and China moved in to the Spring and Autumn Period, the classic period of Chinese philosophy began . This is known as the Hundred Schools of Thought . Of the many schools founded at this time and during the subsequent Warring States Period, the four most influential ones were Confucianism, , Mohism and .

Imperial era

The short founder Qin Dynasty, where Legalism was the official philosophy, . Legalism remained influential until the emperors of the Han Dynasty adopted Daoism and later Confucianism as official doctrine. These latter two became the determining forces of Chinese thought until the 20th century, with the introduction Buddhist philosophy negotiated largely through perceived similarities with Daoism.

Neo-Confucianism was a revived version of old Confucian principles that appeared around the Song Dynasty, with Buddhist, Taoist, and Legalist features. It was later popularized during the reign of the Ming Dynasty.

The respective influences of Daoism and Confucianism are often described this way: "Chinese are Confucianist during the day, while they are Daoists at night". Moreover, many Chinese were government officials in the daily life ''and'' poets in their spare time.

Modern era

During the Industrial and Modern Ages, Chinese philosophy had also began to integrate concepts of Western philosophy, as steps toward modernization. By the time of the Xinhai Revolution in 1911, there were many calls, such as the May Fourth Movement, to completely abolish the old imperial institutions and practices of China. There have been attempts to incorporate democracy, republicanism, and industrialism into Chinese philosophy, notably by Sun Yat-Sen at the beginning of the 20th century. Mao Zedong added Marxism, Stalinism, and other thought.

When the Communist Party of China power, previous schools of thought, excepting notably , were denounced as backward, and later even purged during the Cultural Revolution. Their influence on Chinese thought, however, remains. The current government of the People's Republic of China is trying to encourage a form of .

Since the radical movement of the Cultural Revolution, the Chinese government has become much more tolerant with the practice of traditional beliefs. The 1978 Constitution of the People's Republic of China guarantees "freedom of religion" with a number of restrictions. Spiritual and philosophical institutions have been allowed to be established or re-established, as long they are not perceived to be a threat to the power of the . The influences of the past are still deeply ingrained in the Chinese culture. As in Japan, philosophy in China has become a melting pot of ideas. It accepts new concepts, while attempting also to accord old beliefs their due.

''See also: Chinese nationalism, Maoism, Culture of the People's Republic of China''

Main Schools of Thought

Confucianism

Confucianism is a philosophical school developed from the teachings of the sage Confucius , collected in the ''Analects of Confucius''. It is a system of , , , and thought that has had tremendous influence on Chinese history, thought, and culture down to the 21st century. Some Westerners have considered it to have been the "state religion" of imperial China. Its influence also spread to Korea and Japan.

The major Confucian concepts include ''rén'' , ''zhèngmíng'' , ''zhōng'' , ''xiào'' , and ''lǐ'' . Confucius taught both positive and negative versions of the . The concepts Yin and Yang represent two opposing forces that are permanently in conflict with each other, leading to perpetual contradiction and change. The Confucian idea of "Rid of the two ends, take the middle" is a Chinese equivalent of Hegel's idea of "thesis, antithesis, and synthesis", which is a way of reconciling opposites, arriving at some middle ground combining the best of both.

Neo-Confucianism

Despite Confucianism losing popularity to Taoism and Buddhism, Neo-Confucianism combined those ideas into a more framework. Its concepts include ''li'' , ''qi'' , ''taiji'' , and ''xin'' .

Taoism

see also Xuanxue
Taoism is a philosophy and later also developed into a religion based on the texts the ''Tao Te Ching'' and the ''Zhuangzi'' . The character ''Tao'' 道 literally means "path" or "way". However in Daoism it refers more often to a meta-physical term that describes a force that encompasses the entire universe but which cannot be described nor felt. All major Chinese philosophical schools have investigated the correct ''Way'' to go about a moral life, but in Taoism it takes on the most abstract meanings, leading this school to be named after it. It advocated nonaction , the strength of softness, spontaneity, and relativism. Although it serves as a rival to Confucianism, a school of active morality, this rivalry is compromised and given perspective by the idiom "practise Confucianism on the outside, Taoism on the inside."
But its main motto is: "If one must rule, rule young"
Most of Taoism's focus is on the undeniable fact that human attempts to make the world better, actually make the world worse. Therefore it is better to strife to harmony.

Legalism

Legalism is a pragmatic political philosophy synthesized by Han Fei. With an essential principle like "when the epoch changed, the ways changed", it upholds the rule of law and is thus a theory of jurisprudence.

A ruler should govern his subjects by the following trinity:
#Fa : law or principle.
#Shu : method, tactic, art, or statecraft.
#Shi : legitimacy, power, or charisma.

Legalism was the chosen philosophy of the Qin Dynasty. It was blamed for creating a totalitarian society and thereby experienced decline. Its main motto is: "Set clear strict laws, or deliver harsh punishment"

Buddhism

Buddhism is a religion, a practical philosophy, and arguably a psychology, focusing on the teachings of Gautama Buddha, who lived on the Indian subcontinent most likely from the mid- to the early 5th century BCE. When used in a generic sense, a is generally considered to be someone who discovers the true .

Although Buddhism originated in , it has had a lasting effect on China. Since Chinese tradition focuses on ethics rather than metaphysics, it has developed several schools distinct from the originating Indian schools. The most prominent examples with philosophical merit are Sanlun, Tiantai, , and Chán . They investigate , levels of truth, whether reality is ultimately empty, and how is to be achieved. Buddhism has a spiritual aspect that compliments the action of Neo-Confucianism, with prominent Neo-Confucians advocating certain forms of meditation.

Mohism

Mohism , founded by Mozi, promotes universal love with the aim of mutual benefit. Everyone must love each other equally and impartially to avoid conflict and war. Mozi was strongly against Confucian ritual, instead emphasizing survival through farming, fortification, and . Tradition is inconsistent, and human beings need an extra-traditional guide to identify which traditions are acceptable. The moral guide must then promote and encourage social behaviors that maximize general benefit. As motivation for his theory, Mozi brought in the ''Will of Heaven'', but rather than being religious his philosophy parallels utilitarianism.

Logicians

The logicians were concerned with logic, paradoxes, names and actuality . The logician Hui Shi was a friendly rival to Zhuangzi, arguing against Taoism in a light-hearted and humorous manner. Another logician, Gongsun Long, told the famous When a White Horse is Not a Horse dialogue. This school did not thrive because the Chinese regarded sophistry and dialectic as impractical.

Great philosophical figures

* Confucius, seen as the Great Master but sometimes ridiculed by Taoists.
** Mencius, Confucius' follower having idealist inspiration.
** Xun Zi, another Confucius' follower, closer to realism.
** Zhu Xi, founder of Neo-Confucianism
** Wang Yangming, most influential proponent of ''xinxue'' or "state of mind."
* Lao Zi, the chief of Taoist school.
** Zhuangzi, said to be the author of the ''Zhuangzi''.
** , said to be the author of the ''Liezi''.
* Mozi, the founder of Mohist school.
* Han Fei, one of the theoreticians of Legalism
* Lin-chi, a great Buddhist Ch'an thinker and teacher, essentially shaped what would become one of the largest schools of Buddhism

Concepts within Chinese philosophy

Although the individual philosophical schools differ considerably, they nevertheless share a common vocabulary and set of concerns.

Among the terms commonly found in Chinese philosophy are:

*Tao
*
*
*Qi
*The ''Taiji'' forms a unity, from which two antagonistic concepts, ''Yin'' and ''Yang'' originate. The word ''Yin'' originally referred to a hillside facing away from the sun. Philosophically, it stands the gloomy, passive, female concept, whereas ''Yang'' stands for the bright, active, male concept. Both concepts, though antagonistic, are also complementary and the present domination of one implies the future rise of the other, as moon's phases .

Among the great controversies of Chinese philosophies are:
* The relation between matter and principle
* The method of discovering truth
* Human nature

Among the commonalties of Chinese philosophies are:
* Epistemological optimism. The belief that the big questions can be answered even if the answers are not currently known.
* The tendency not to view man as separate from nature.
* The tendency not to invoke a unified and personified supernatural power. Questions about the nature and existence of God which have profoundly influenced Western philosophy have not been important in Chinese philosophies.
* The belief that the purpose of philosophy is primarily to serve as an ethical and practical guide.
* The political focus: most scholars of the Hundred Schools were trying to convince the ruler to behave in the way they defended.

Comparison between Chinese and Western philosophy

The focuses of and Chinese philosophy are radically different, thus they have a considerable effect on mentalities of both societies. Western philosophy emphasizes ambition, individualism, rationality, , and liberty, while Chinese philosophy emphasizes benevolence, harmony, wisdom, family, and honoring one's ancestors. Chinese philosophy primarily focuses more internally, while the focus of Western philosophy is more external.

While calls for liberty and democracy, demands unquestioned loyalty to imperial authority. While competition is essential in the ideology of Capitalism, cooperation is seen as the key for harmony in the philosophy of the East. Western philosophers primarily value reason and rationality, while the Far Eastern philosophers generally emphasize meditation and wisdom. This is not to say that Chinese philosophy is irrational, nor to say that Western philosophy is unwise.

Despite their many differences, it would be far from the truth that and Chinese philosophy differ completely differently. The two philosophies explored deep into the realms of inquiry and covered similar grounds. Thus, naturally, they would have an ample number of schools that thought similarly. For example, there were philosophers in China, such as the Logicians, that made scientific rationality their chief focus, while there were philosophers in the West, such as Marcus Aurelius, that saw meditation as the path to knowledge. It is just the mainstream philosophical schools that make Western and Chinese philosophy different.

Friday, September 19, 2008

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